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    The ancient DNA and archaeobotanical analysis suggest cultivation of Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta at Yumuktepe and Yenikapi Pottery Neolithic sites in Turkey
    (Springer, 2023) Degirmenci, Funda O.; Ulas, Burhan; Kansu, Cigdem; Ulug, Asiye; Caneva, Isabella; Asal, Rahmi; Kaya, Zeki
    Archaeobotanical materials subject to aDNA analysis were recovered from Yumuktepe and Yenikapi, two important archaeological sites in Anatolia and date back to the Pottery Neolithic Period i.e., 7th millennium BC. Many charred ancient seeds representing various cereal species including a great number of wheat grains were documented in mentioned sites. Among the cereal seeds, charred wheat samples were tentatively identified as Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta L. or Triticum new glume wheat (NGW) or atypical emmer or naked wheat in Yumuktepe and Yenikapi showed similarities with the morphological characteristics of T. aestivum subsp. spelta wheat, but it was difficult to reach a firm conclusion. This study aimed to provide genetic data to enable more precise identification of charred wheat seeds using an ancient DNA (aDNA) approach. aDNAs were successfully extracted from the representative charred seeds of T aestivum subsp. spelta or NGW or atypical emmer or naked wheat. The PCR amplification of 26SrDNA and IGS gene regions with aDNA was carried out and sequenced. The expected product sizes of IGS 158 bp for the D genome and 87 bp for the A or B genomes and DNA sequence comparisons with other wheat species revealed that T. aestivum subsp. spelta or NGW or atypical emmer or naked wheat samples included the D genome from Aegilops tauschii and is more likely to be T. aestivum subsp. spelta. The discovery of T. aestivum subsp. spelta grains in the Yenikapi and Yumuktepe suggest that the cultivation of hexaploid wheat was widespread. Further, spelta hulled wheat, which is the progenitor of the hexaploid wheat, might have been cultivated in these settlements.
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    Drawing diffusion patterns of Neolithic agriculture in Anatolia
    (Elsevier, 2024) Ulas, Burhan; Abbo, Shahal; Gopher, Avi
    The data distribution for plant domestication in the various parts of Anatolia is uneven and quite scarce or altogether missing for large tracts of the region. The Southeastern Taurus region and Central Anatolia provide a relatively good Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) archaeobotanical record, which is also the case, to a certain degree, for Central Anatolia. The rest of present-day Turkey, e.g., the northeast region, Cilicia, the Lake District and major parts of western Anatolia (the Black Sea, Mediterranean coast and Marmara regions) provide mostly Pottery Neolithic (PN) archaeobotanical data. The PN sites in these regions appear to represent Neolithic pioneer communities that established new sites based on an agricultural economy, of which none predate the second half of the 8th millennium cal. BC. Evidently, domesticated plants that first appeared in the Southeastern Taurus region ca. 8500 cal. BC spread rapidly to western Syria, Cyprus and Central Anatolia a couple of hundreds of years later (still within the second half of the 9th millennium cal. BC). It took another millennium for domesticates and agriculture to reach western Anatolia. While the growing intensity of Neolithic research throughout Turkey (western Turkey included) in recent years may change the picture, for now, based on the available data, this is the emerging pattern and it deserves thought. Based on evidence from a range of relevant disciplines (geobotany, archaeobotany, agronomy, genetics, archaeology and ethnobotany) we support a rapid model for plant domestication in Anatolia (as opposed to the protracted model). We reconstruct the diffusion of domesticates and the new economy in Turkey and into Europe via maritime routes and through the inland Anatolian Corridor. We offer itinerant farming craftsmen (expert harvesters) as a possible mechanism in the diffusion of agricultural products during the Neolithic.
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    Recent attestations of new glume wheat in Turkey: a reassessment of its role in the reconstruction of Neolithic agriculture
    (Springer, 2021) Ulas, Burhan; Fiorentino, Girolamo
    Studies of the origins of agriculture in the Near East have revealed that the eight plant species known as Founder Crops, i.e. emmer, einkorn, barley, lentils, peas, chickpeas, bitter vetch and flax, derived from annual self-pollinating wild predecessors, were all domesticated in roughly the same period. Recent research however has prompted new debate on whether there are really only eight Founder Crops species in the Near East. Interest has focused on new glume wheat (NGW), a Triticum species identified for the first time by de Moulins at the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) site of Caferhoyuk in Eastern Anatolia. After this identification, similar remains were identified in Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in Greece and were named new glume wheat. Recently, the remains of NGW spikelet bases have been documented in two settlements in Turkey: Yumuktepe (Cilicia) and Yenikapi (eastern Thrace). The remains of NGW spikelet bases from these two settlements underwent morphobiometric analysis in order to contribute to discussion of the morphological character of NGW spikelets. In addition, a whole NGW spikelet from Yenikapi was analysed, contributing to discussion of the morphological features of NGW caryopses. At the same time, these attestations open up new debate not only on its large-scale presence in Anatolia but also its origins and the ways and routes by which it spread to other regions. In this study, the two basic models of domestication and geographical expansion, i.e. the rapid transition model and the protracted model, are assessed on the basis of the new evidence of NGW in Turkey and the relationship with other European sites where it is attested.
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    Traditional wheat cultivation in South-Eastern Anatolia and its comparison to the archaeological context
    (Springer, 2021) Ulas, Burhan
    This study analyzes the wheat farming activities currently carried out by some rural communities in south-eastern Anatolia. The region is in the northern part of the so-called Fertile Crescent, which played a crucial role 10,500 years ago in domestication of wheat,Triticum monococcumL.andTriticum dicoccon(Schrank) Schubl.in particular. Ethnobotanical investigations were conducted between November 2013 and July 2014 in the rural areas of the provinces of Diyarbakir, Mardin, Sirnak and Elazig. All the examined locations were documented at all stages of the wheat cultivation, except for the preparation of soil. Certain similar agricultural techniques between the contemporary villagers and the prehistoric communities were recorded. In particular, in some villages, silos made exclusively with earth, stones and tree branches, the same types of materials also used during the prehistoric period, were documented. It was also demonstrated that there has existed a continuous exchange of seeds even at long distances through specialized harvesters. This exchange has allowed transmission of cultivation techniques, which are thought to have also existed in the prehistoric period. In addition, manual harvesting was also documented. Based on ethnobotanical observations, it is proposed that manual harvesting was also used during the prehistoric period. During the research, it was observed that women were the protagonists at all stages of production of cereals, from sowing to harvest. Hence, it is suggested that women may have played a leading role in agricultural activities during the prehistoric period, starting from the Neolithic.